Recent Publications and Reviews

Recent Publications
Human Carnivore Conflicts
Compensation and Insurance
Predation on Livestock & Attacks on Humans
Models Applied to Conflict Resolution
Application of Prevention Measures and Guarding Animals

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Recent Publications

Ecotourism is a rapidly growing industry with unknown impacts on viewed wildlife that may require novel management action. We examined the impact of viewing activities on the behaviour of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in coastal British Columbia. Domination of the best feeding sites and human avoidance by large male bears has consistently been reported. We, however, saw displacement in time rather than space – during the viewing day large males were less active than at other times, while females with cubs tended to be more active. In each year, females with cubs spent similarly high proportions of their time fishing when people were present. In years with large male activity, less time was spent fishing when people were absent. When freed from the potential threat of large male bears, females with cubs showed no measurable impact of controlled human activity. Human presence at a feeding site impacts the behaviour of brown bears, but not as expected. Temporal avoidance of human activity by large males was observed; indications that they departed upon satiation, before the arrival of morning tours, however, suggests that there was little energetic impact. By displacing large males, viewing activities created a temporal refuge, enhancing feeding opportunities for subordinate age/sex classes. With the strong positive relationships between mean female mass and litter size, this may in turn increase population productivity.

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Conflicts between humans and predators are the product of socio-economic and political landscapes and are particularly controversial because the resources concerned have economic value and the predators involved are high profile and often legally protected. We surveyed the current literature for information on ecological and social factors common to human–predator–prey conflicts. We used this information to examine whether losses to predators and patterns of investment in husbandry could be linked to these factors. We found that livestock losses to predators were low and were negatively associated with net primary productivity and predator home range sizes, but were not affected by predator density, methods of husbandry or human population density. While there was no effect of husbandry on losses, variation in husbandry was explained by net primary productivity, predator density and percentage of stock killed by predators. Inconsistent and sparse data across conflicts may have limited our ability to identify important factors and resolve patterns, and suggests that there is no reliable or consistent framework for assessing and managing human–predator conflicts that involve game and livestock species. Our approach highlights the type of data that could be very informative to management if collected across a range of cases and habitats.

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Woodroff, R., P. Lindsey, S. Romanachb, A. Steinb and S.M.K. ole Ranahb. 2005.
Livestock predation by endangered Afrcan wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern Kenya. Biological Conservation 124 (2): 225-234.

Most large mammalian carnivores are in global decline, principally due to conflict with livestock farmers. Because endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) range widely, often beyond the boundaries of protected areas, they may be particularly exposed to lethal control by farmers, even where nominally protected by reserves. Hence, effectively conserving wild dogs demands resolution of their conflicts with farmers. We investigated livestock depredation by African wild dogs living outside protected areas in northern Kenya. Scat analysis confirmed the distribution of depredation events reported by local farmers, indicating that farmer reports – collated by local Community Liaison Officers – gave a reasonably good index of the true pattern of depredation. Although livestock were abundant throughout the study area, depredation was exceedingly uncommon (approximately one attack per 1000 km2 per year) and the costs of tolerating wild dogs were very low (US $3.40/wilddog/year) where wild prey remained, even at low densities. However, where wild prey were seriously depleted, wild dogs killed livestock repeatedly, and the cost of sustaining them rose to US $389/wilddog/year. Hence, although wild dogs had a negligible economic impact in the region, their impact was locally severe. Conservation activities for wild dogs are most likely to be successful if targeted at areas where wild prey remain, and where traditional herding practices have been retained.

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The Sheep & Goat Research Journal No 19 has dedicated a special edition on predation, predation management and prevention measures.

Table of contents:

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People and Wildlife, Conflict or Co-existence?
Edited by Rosie Woodroffe, Simon Thirgood, Alan Rabinowitz
Series: Conservation Biology (No. 9)

Repeated wild boar depredation on adult sheep (in French)
Cas répétés de prédation de sangliers sur des ovins adultes

Please find the information on the website of the ONCFS (Office Nationale de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage) 
and download at: http://www.oncfs.gouv.fr/events/point_faune/suivi-sanitaire/sangliers_ovins.pdf

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Huygens, O.C., F.T. van Manen , D.A. Martorello, H. Hayashi and J. Ishida. 2004. Relationships between Asiatic black bear kills and depredation costs in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Ursus 15(2):197–202.

Over 1,000 Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are killed each year in Japan to control depredation activity. Our objective was to determine if killing bears reduces depredation costs. We focused our study on Nagano Prefecture, where 2,562 nuisance bears were reported killed and where reported depredation cost exceeded ¥1,430 million between 1979 and 1999. We used mixed models with repeated measures to determine if annual depredation costs were associated with the number of bears killed. Our dataset included 15 years (1985–99) of kill and cost data for 122 municipal jurisdictions within 10 regions. We performed analyses at the regional level based on combined harvest and nuisance kill data, and at the municipal level based only on nuisance kill data. We classified the number of kills into 3 classes (low, medium, high). Analyses were repeated using prior-year kills to examine whether a possible time-lag existed. Annual depredation costs were positively associated with the kill data at the regional level (F = 5.51; 2, 72.3 df; P = 0.006) during the same year. However, we observed no association based on prior-year kill data (F = 0.96; 2, 65.1; P = 0.390), suggesting that depredation costs and bear kills are a function of nuisance bear numbers rather than reflecting a causal relationship between the 2 measures. Nuisance bear numbers may in turn be affected either by the availability of natural foods or by general population trends. At the municipal level, depredation costs were not associated with the number of nuisance bears killed during the same year (F = 1.36; 2, 466 df; P = 0.258) or the prior year (F = 0.42; 2, 459 df; P = 0.656). Our results suggest that systematically killing Asiatic bears may not be an effective tool for mitigating nuisance costs. In municipalities where nuisance costs remain high, we recommend that alternative methods be tested for their efficacy in mitigating costs. Such methods may include public education, changing or removing financial incentives to kill bears, changing crop rotations to crops that are not attractive to bears in risk areas, promoting natural food production, using electric fences, and applying aversive conditioning techniques.

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Kvam, T., K. M. Rosendal, E.M. Rosvold, A. Aune, S.M. Rosendal, K. Brøndbo, P.F. Moa. (2004).
Sheep mortality in an area close to a major city 2002-2003. 
Nord-Trøndelag University College HINT Utredning 55: 1-57. (In Norwegian)

Summer mortality of free-grazing lambs in two forested grazing areas west of the Norwegian capital Oslo had increased dramatically from 3-6% to 11-17% between 1997 and 2001. To identify causes of mortality lambs were equipped with radio-transmitters in 2002 (n=317) and 2003 (n=299). All of the other lambs in the flocks were equipped with "dummy" transmitters. Mortality among the radio-collared lambs was 18% in 2002 and 12% in 2003. Lynx were responsible for 65% and 24% of mortality in these radio-collared lambs in 2002 and 2003, respectively. Other causes of mortality included disease, drowning, red fox predation and problems with insect larvae.

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Gunther, K.A., M.A. Haroldson, K. Frey, S.L. Cain, J. Copeland and C.C. Schwartz. 2004. Grizzly bear–human conflicts in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, 1992–2000. Ursus 15(1):10–24.

For many years, the primary strategy for managing grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) that came into conflict with humans in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) was to capture and translocate the offending bears away from conflict sites. Translocation usually only temporarily alleviated the problems and most often did not result in long-term solutions. Wildlife managers needed to be able to predict the causes, types, locations, and trends of conflicts to more efficiently allocate resources for pro-active rather than reactive management actions. To address this need, we recorded all grizzly bear–human conflicts reported in the GYE during 1992–2000. We analyzed trends in conflicts over time (increasing or decreasing), geographic location on macro- (inside or outside of the designated Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Recovery Zone [YGBRZ]) and micro- (geographic location) scales, land ownership (public or private), and relationship to the seasonal availability of bear foods. We recorded 995 grizzly bear–human conflicts in the GYE. Fifty-three percent of the conflicts occurred outside and 47% inside of the YGBRZ boundary. Fifty-nine percent of the conflicts occurred on public and 41% on private land. Incidents of bears damaging property and obtaining anthropogenic foods were inversely correlated to the abundance of naturally occurring bear foods. Livestock depredations occurred independent of the availability of bear foods. To further aid in prioritizing management strategies to reduce conflicts, we also analyzed conflicts in relation to subsequent human-caused grizzly bear mortality. There were 74 human-caused grizzly bear mortalities during the study, primarily from killing bears in defense of life and property (43%) and management removal of bears involved in bear–human conflicts (28%). Other sources of human-caused mortality included illegal kills, electrocution by downed power-lines, mistaken identification by American black bear (Ursus americanus) hunters, and vehicle strikes. This analysis will help provide wildlife managers the information necessary to develop strategies designed to prevent conflicts from occurring rather than reacting to conflicts after they occur.

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Mishra, C. 2004.
Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. 
Environmental Conservation 4:338–343.

Livestock depredation by the snow leopard, Uncia uncia, and the wolf, Canis lupus, has resulted in a human-wildlife conflict that hinders the conservation of these globally-threatened species throughout their range. This paper analyses the alleged economic loss due to livestock depredation by these carnivores, and the retaliatory responses of an agro-pastoral community around Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The three villages studied (80 households) attributed a total of 189 livestock deaths (18% of the livestock holding) over a period of 18 months to wild predators, and this would amount to a loss per household equivalent to half the average annual per capita income. The financial compensation received by the villagers from the Government amounted to 3% of the perceived annual loss. Recent intensification of the conflict seems related to a 37.7% increase in livestock holding in the last decade. Villagers have been killing the wolf, though apparently not the snow leopard. A self-financed compensation scheme, and modification of existing livestock pens are suggested as area-specific short-term measures to reduce the conflict. The need to address the problem of increasing livestock holding in the long run is emphasized.

Download at: http://www.ncf-india.org/pubs/Mishra%201997.pdf

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Jo Kleiven, Tore Bjerke % Bjorn P. Kaltenborn, 2004.
Factors influencing the social acceptability of large carnivore behaviours.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 13(9): 1647-1658.

A survey on attitudes toward large carnivores was conducted in a representative sample of the Norwegian population (n = 3134). People were asked about the acceptability of carnivores living in remote wilderness, close to where people live, killing livestock, killing pets, or threatening humans. Large differences in acceptability appeared across the five situations. Wolves and bears were less acceptable than lynx and wolverines when observed close to where people live. Negative associations were found between acceptability and lack of personal control, economic loss, and respondents' age. Acceptability was higher among males than among females, and higher among urban than among rural residents. The results showed that general measures of attitudes alone toward large carnivores were of limited value in wildlife management. The situational and social specificity of these attitudes should be given more attention.

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Richard H. Lamprey & Robin S. Reid, 2004.
Expansion of human settlement in Kenya's Maasai Mara: what future for pastoralism and wildlife?
Journal of Biogeography, 31(6): 997-1032.

Aim Wildlife and pastoral peoples have lived side-by-side in the Mara ecosystem of south-western Kenya for at least 2000 years. Recent changes in human population and landuse are jeopardizing this co-existence. The aim of the study is to determine the viability of pastoralism and wildlife conservation in Maasai ranches around the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR). Location A study area of 2250 km2 was selected in the northern part of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, encompassing group ranches adjoining the MMNR. Emphasis is placed on Koyake Group Ranch, a rangeland area owned by Maasai pastoralists, and one of Kenya's major wildlife tourism areas. Methods Maasai settlement patterns, vegetation, livestock numbers and wildlife numbers were analysed over a 50-year period. Settlement distributions and vegetation changes were determined from aerial photography and aerial surveys of 1950, 1961, 1967, 1974, 1983 and 1999. Livestock and wildlife numbers were determined from re-analysis of systematic reconnaissance flights conducted by the Kenya Government from 1977 to 2000, and from ground counts in 2002. Corroborating data on livestock numbers were obtained from aerial photography of Maasai settlements in 2001. Trends in livestock were related to rainfall, and to vegetation production as indicated by the seasonal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. With these data sets, per capita livestock holdings were determined for the period 1980-2000, a period of fluctuating rainfall and primary production. Results For the first half of the twentieth century, the Mara was infested with tsetse-flies, and the Maasai were confined to the Lemek Valley area to the north of the MMNR. During the early 1960s, active tsetse-control measures by both government and the Maasai led to the destruction of woodlands across the Mara and the retreat of tsetse flies. The Maasai were then able to expand their settlement area south towards MMNR. Meanwhile, wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) from the increasing Serengeti population began to spill into the Mara rangelands each dry season, leading to direct competition between livestock and wildlife. Group ranches were established in the area in 1970 to formalize land tenure for the Maasai. By the late 1980s, with rapid population growth, new settlement areas had been established at Talek and other parts adjacent to the MMNR. Over the period 1983-99, the number of Maasai bomas in Koyake has increased at 6.4% per annum (pa), and the human population at 4.4% pa. Over the same period, cattle numbers on Koyake varied from 20,000 to 45,000 (average 25,000), in relation to total rainfall received over the previous 2 years. The rangelands of the Mara cannot support a greater cattle population under current pastoral practices. Conclusions With the rapid increase in human settlement in the Mara, and with imminent land privatization, it is probable that wildlife populations on Koyake will decline significantly in the next 3-5 years. Per capita livestock holdings on the ranch have now fallen to three livestock units/reference adult, well below minimum pastoral subsistence requirements. During the 1980s and 90s the Maasai diversified their livelihoods to generate revenues from tourism, small-scale agriculture and land-leases for mechanized cultivation. However, there is a massive imbalance in tourism incomes in favour of a small elite. In 1999 the membership of Koyake voted to subdivide the ranch into individual holdings. In 2003 the subdivision survey allocated plots of 60 ha average size to 1020 ranch members. This land privatization may result in increased cultivation and fencing, the exclusion of wildlife, and the decline of tourism as a revenue generator. This unique pastoral/wildlife system will shortly be lost unless land holdings can be managed to maintain the free movement of livestock and wildlife.

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Nina Fascione, Aimee Delach , Martin E. Smith, 2004.
People and Predators: From Conflict to Coexistence
Island Press, available in October 2004.

Carnivores provide innumerable ecological benefits and play a unique role in preserving and maintaining ecosystem services and function, but at the same time they can create serious problems for human populations. A key question for conservation biologists and wildlife managers is how to manage the world's carnivore populations to conserve this important natural resource while mitigating harmful impacts on humans.

In People and Predators, leading scientists and researchers offer case studies of human-carnivore conflicts in a variety of landscapes, including rural, urban, and political. The book covers a diverse range of taxa, geographic regions, and conflict scenarios, with each chapter dealing with a specific facet of human-carnivore interactions and offering practical, concrete approaches to resolving the conflict under consideration. Chapters provide background on particular problems and describe how challenges have been met or what research or tools are still needed to resolve the conflicts.

People and Predators will helps readers to better understand issues of carnivore conservation in the 21st century, and provides practical tools for resolving many of the problems that stand between us and a future in which carnivores fulfill their historic ecological roles.

The book can be ordered at Island Press

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Athreya, V.R.; Thakur, S.S.; Chaudhuri, S.; and Belsare A.V. 2004. 
A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune District, Maharashtra.  
Submitted to the Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Nagpur. Maharashtra Forest Department.

The western Indian state of Maharashtra, with a population of around 500 leopards (Panthera pardus fusca), has in recent times seen an escalation in man – leopard conflicts. This very detailed study measures the degree of conflict, looks at spatial and temporal patterns in conflict intensity –including two regions that differ in topological and socio-economic factors- and provides recommendations for dealing with problem leopards.

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Rolf D. Baldus (Ed.), 2004
Lion Conservation in Tanzania Leads to Serious Human – Lion Conflicts with a Case Study of a Man-Eating Lion Killing 35 People
GTZ Wildlife Programme in Tanzania, Wildlife Divisioin, Dar Es Salaam

Executive Summary
Tanzania has the largest lion populations on the continent, and they are not threatened with extinction.  The population is stable in nearly all protected areas.  It is of significant size and mostly stable outside these protected areas.  Exact data is lacking, but the lion-population has most probably been reduced during the last decades in areas with high population growth, expansion of agriculture and livestock husbandry and in some areas in North–western Tanzania where an influx of refugees has occurred.
Although the lion range has been reduced in Tanzania in the last 50 years due to human population growth and agricultural expansion, lions benefit from a widespread network of protected areas (30 % of the country) and from vast tracts of unpopulated and populated lands with relatively undisturbed habitats suitable for lions.
Lions are protected throughout the country, and it is the policy of the Government to conserve them both inside and outside of the protected areas, as they are part of biodiversity.  Some problem-animal control in extreme cases of human–lion conflict occurs, and approximately 250 lions are shot per year by tourist hunters, which is overall a sustainable yield.  Empirical evidence from the Selous Game Reserve shows that off-take levels are sustainable.  Lions play a major role in the hunting industry, which is economically significant and greatly contributes to paying the conservation bill. As a consequence of the Wildlife Policy of Tanzania (1998) Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) are being created where villages manage the wildlife on their land and are increasingly earning revenues, to which controlled lion hunting will contribute.  This will raise tolerance levels towards wildlife including dangerous game and it will improve the possibilities for wildlife as a land use option, thereby safeguarding areas which otherwise would be lost for wildlife.
As a consequence of this relatively good conservation record, in particular when compared to many other countries, lions are a major source of conflicts with the human population.  We estimate that around 200 people are killed in Tanzania every year by dangerous animals, of which around one third on an average could be by lions.  Lion inflicted injuries and loss of life have been and still are more acute in Southern Tanzania.  The paper presents details of one recent case where not less than 35 people were killed by one or several man-eating lions in an area of 350 km² just 150 km south–west of Dar es Salaam between the Rufiji River and the Selous Game Reserve within 20 months. It is one of the biggest individual cases of man-eating by one or two lions ever recorded and with the information presented here it is at the same time one of the best documented cases, at least in Tanzania. Further analysis might help to understand the underlying causes better and thereby assist in devising strategies to protect humans better without eradicating the lions.
The reasons which have led to such a tremendous loss of lions in Kenya or in West-Africa are not connected to international trade. To upgrade the lion to CITES Appendix I as proposed by Kenya would not address any of the issues that adversely affect lion populations, i.e. loss of habitat to agriculture, problem animal control, poaching and killing of lions by pastoralists.  It would however, make the hunting of lions more difficult or even impossible.   This hunting is sustainable and giving value to lions is one major element in the range of conservation tools which Tanzania has successfully applied to protect the future of the lion.

Download report as word file 

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Jethva B.D. & Y.V. Jhala, 2004.
Foraging ecology, economics and conservation of Indian wolves in the Bhal region of Gujarat, Western India.
Biological Conservation, 116: 351-357.

Abstract
We determined the food habits of the endangered Indian wolf Canis lupus pallipes in the Bhal region of Gujarat, western India by analyzing 1246 wolf scats from five packs by estimating prey availability and by monitoring radio-tagged wolves from three packs for 1994 hour. The frequency of occurrence of blackbuck Antelope cervicapra remains in scats was 55.5%, followed by cattle (25.7%), nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (6.3%); and as others (<5%). The frequency of food items in scats of different wolf packs reflected their relative availability. For cattle the distinction between scavenging and predation was only possible through continuous monitoring. The average feeding interval obtained from monitoring was 3.6[plus or minus] 0.7 (S.E.) days and the average consumption/wolf/day was 1.8[plus or minus] 0.3 (S.E.) Kg. Adult male blackbuck formed most (70%) of the biomass consumed by wolves whereas cattle carcasses and cattle actually killed by wolves contributed 14 and 8%, respectively. Predation on cattle therefore was low and translated in an estimated loss of Rs. 821 (US$ 17) per village per annum. We propose that landscapes such as the Bhal with high wolf densities, high natural prey availability and consequently low human-wolf conflict levels should be prioritized as prime sites for wolf conservation efforts.

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Capitani, C., I.  Bertelli, P. Varuzza , M.  Scandura & M. Apollonio, 2004.
A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems.
Mammalian Biology 69: 1-10.

Abstract
To verify food habit flexibility of wolf populations under different ecological conditions, scats collected year round were analysed in three study areas and diet composition of resident packs was compared. The three study areas, representing Alpine (SV), Apennine (PM) and Mediterranean (CV) ecosystems, are rich in wild ungulates, which differ in number of species and relative abundance; livestock is also present. Wild ungulates were the main source of food, accounting for 89.4%–95.1% of the diet. Livestock, instead, scarsely reached 8% of annual mean percent volume in any one area, and only in the Alps did they play a major role in autumn. Other food items constituted less than 5% of annual mean percent volume. Variations in the proportions of use of wild ungulate categories were observed among the study areas, although some patterns of intraspecific selection emerged in each area. Finally, differences both in the relationships between utilisation and availability of preys, and in trophic niche breadth were discussed in relation to environmental features and colonization patterns.

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Kleiven, J., T. Bjerke & B.P. Kaltenborn, 2004. 
Factors influencing the social acceptability of large carnivore behaviours.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 9: 1647-1658. 

Abstract
A survey on attitudes toward large carnivores was conducted in a representative sample of the Norwegian population (n = 3134). People were asked about the acceptability of carnivores living in remote wilderness, close to where people live, killing livestock, killing pets, or threatening humans. Large differences in acceptability appeared across the five situations. Wolves and bears were less acceptable than lynx and wolverines when observed close to where people live. Negative associations were found between acceptability and lack of personal control, economic loss, and respondents' age. Acceptability was higher among males than among females, and higher among urban than among rural residents. The results showed that general measures of attitudes alone toward large carnivores were of limited value in wildlife management. The situational and social specificity of these attitudes should be given more attention.

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Patterson, B.D., S. M. Kasiki, E. Selempo and R.W. Kays, 2004. 
Livestock predation by lions (Panthera leo) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. 
Biological Conservation 119: 507-516.

Abstract
Lion conflicts with humans stemming from their depredations on livestock are largely responsible for their catastrophic decline, from 200,000 to 22,600 (90%) in only 20 years. Understanding patterns associated with such predation can be used to mitigate its effects and promote continued coexistence of lions and human. We analyzed attacks on livestock over a four-year period on two arid-land ranches neighboring Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. A total of 312 attacks claiming 433 head of stock were examined. Lions were responsible for 85.9% of the attacks; spotted hyenas and cheetahs were the other predators responsible. Lions and hyenas attacked mainly cattle and did so at night, whereas cheetahs almost exclusively took smaller sheep and goats. There was no temporal autocorrelation of daily losses, suggesting that the attacks are independent events. Both number of attacks and number of stock killed showed significant seasonal differences, and their monthly totals correlated positively with precipitation. Intensified predation in the wet season differs from patterns of lion predation elsewhere but reinforces the pattern that large carnivores take more livestock when native prey are most difficult to find and kill. On average, wildlife attacks claimed 2.4% of range stock annually, and livestock represented ca 5.8% of the diet of ranch lions. This predation represented 2.6% of the herd's estimated economic value, and cost the ranches $8,749 per annum. Each lion cost ranchers approximately $290 per year in depredations.

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TREVES ADRIAN , LISA NAUGHTON-TREVES, ELIZABETH K. HARPER, DAVID J. MLADENOFF, ROBERT A. ROSE, THEODORE A. SICKLEY, AND ADRIAN P. WYDEVEN, 2004.
Predicting Human-Carnivore Conflict: a Spatial Model Derived from 25 Years of Data on Wolf Predation on Livestock.
Conservation Biology 18, 114-125.

Abstract 
Many carnivore populations escaped extinction during the twentieth century as a result of legal protections, habitat restoration, and changes in public attitudes. However, encounters between carnivores, livestock, and humans are increasing in some areas, raising concerns about the costs of carnivore conservation. We present a method to predict sites of human-carnivore conflicts regionally, using as an example the mixed forest-agriculture landscapes of Wisconsin and Minnesota (U.S.A.). We used a matched-pair analysis of 17 landscape variables in a geographic information system to discriminate affected areas from unaffected areas at two spatial scales (townships and farms). Wolves (Canis lupus) selectively preyed on livestock in townships with high proportions of pasture and high densities of deer (Odocoileus virginianus) combined with low proportions of crop lands, coniferous forest, herbaceous wetlands, and open water. These variables plus road density and farm size also appeared to predict risk for individual farms when we considered Minnesota alone. In Wisconsin only, farm size, crop lands, and road density were associated with the risk of wolf attack on livestock. At the level of townships, we generated two state-wide maps to predict the extent and location of future predation on livestock. Our approach can be applied wherever spatial data are available on sites of conflict between wildlife and humans.

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REDPATH, S. M. , B. E. ARROYO, F. M. LECKIE, P. BACON, N. BAYFIELD, R. J. GUTIÉRREZ, AND S. J. THIRGOOD, 2004.
Using Decision Modeling with Stakeholders to Reduce Human-Wildlife Conflict: a Raptor-Grouse Case Study.
Conservation Biology 18: 350-359.

Abstract
The successful resolution of human-wildlife conflicts requires the participation of local communities and other stakeholder groups in formulating management decisions. In the uplands of the United Kingdom, a controversial conservation issue concerns the relationship between the conservation of a legally protected raptor, the Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) and the management of a gamebird, the Red Grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus). We used multicriteria analysis to evaluate the perspectives of two groups of stakeholders, grouse managers and raptor conservationists, and the acceptability to them of different management solutions to this conflict. Both groups quantified the relative importance of evaluation criteria and used these as a basis for comparing different upland and Hen Harrier management options. In relation to upland management, grouse managers placed more importance on economic criteria than did raptor conservationists, who valued natural-environment criteria more highly. Intensively managed grouse moors, involving the control of harrier numbers, were ranked most highly by grouse managers and managed nature reserves by raptor conservationists, but both groups also ranked legally managed grouse moors highly. When evaluating Hen Harrier management options, grouse managers considered time scale and cost the most important criteria, whereas raptor conservationists considered the effects on harrier populations to be most important. Harrier quota schemes were the management solution most favored by grouse managers, whereas raptor conservationists preferred allowing harriers to attain natural densities. Notably, however, one technique that has already been partly tested in the field-the use of diversionary feeding was scored highly by both groups and thus holds promise for some form of compromise. This exercise highlighted the value of these objective techniques for developing dialog and trust between stakeholder groups, and it highlighted the need to conduct further research to test the effectiveness of different management options. There was broad agreement that the workshop moved the prior positions of individual stakeholders and was a valuable tool in helping to resolve human-wildlife conflicts.

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Burri Antoine , Eva-Maria Kläy, Jean-Marc Landry, Tiziano Maddalena, Peter Oggier, Chiara Solari, Damiano Torriani, Jean-Marc Weber, 2004.
Rapport final, Projet Loup Suisse – Prévention, 1999 – 2003. (in French and German only)

January 13, 1999, at the time of a press conference held in Brig, the Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forest an Landscape (SAEFL) launched the Swiss Wolf Project (SWP). Its general objective? To seek solutions within the conflicts generated by the presence of the wolf. Coordinated by the KORA, the project defined itself on three principal axes:prevention, information and monitoring. With the main objectives, the development and the evaluation of prevention measures of the damage to livestock, prevention unquestionably constituted the backbone of the mandate. The project was a lot inspired by prevention measures applied in regions, large carnivores never disappeared. Thus, we recommended the use of shepherds and protection animals (dogs, donkeys) as well as the regrouping of sheep in electrified enclosures at least at night. At the end of 2003, the SWP changed its structure and the prevention became the competence of agriculture. We present here the experiences gained during five years of our mandate. 

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Human Carnivore Conflicts

Gunther, K.A., M.A. Haroldson, K. Frey, S.L. Cain, J. Copeland and C.C. Schwartz. 2004. Grizzly bear–human conflicts in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, 1992–2000. Ursus 15(1):10–24.

For many years, the primary strategy for managing grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) that came into conflict with humans in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) was to capture and translocate the offending bears away from conflict sites. Translocation usually only temporarily alleviated the problems and most often did not result in long-term solutions. Wildlife managers needed to be able to predict the causes, types, locations, and trends of conflicts to more efficiently allocate resources for pro-active rather than reactive management actions. To address this need, we recorded all grizzly bear–human conflicts reported in the GYE during 1992–2000. We analyzed trends in conflicts over time (increasing or decreasing), geographic location on macro- (inside or outside of the designated Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Recovery Zone [YGBRZ]) and micro- (geographic location) scales, land ownership (public or private), and relationship to the seasonal availability of bear foods. We recorded 995 grizzly bear–human conflicts in the GYE. Fifty-three percent of the conflicts occurred outside and 47% inside of the YGBRZ boundary. Fifty-nine percent of the conflicts occurred on public and 41% on private land. Incidents of bears damaging property and obtaining anthropogenic foods were inversely correlated to the abundance of naturally occurring bear foods. Livestock depredations occurred independent of the availability of bear foods. To further aid in prioritizing management strategies to reduce conflicts, we also analyzed conflicts in relation to subsequent human-caused grizzly bear mortality. There were 74 human-caused grizzly bear mortalities during the study, primarily from killing bears in defense of life and property (43%) and management removal of bears involved in bear–human conflicts (28%). Other sources of human-caused mortality included illegal kills, electrocution by downed power-lines, mistaken identification by American black bear (Ursus americanus) hunters, and vehicle strikes. This analysis will help provide wildlife managers the information necessary to develop strategies designed to prevent conflicts from occurring rather than reacting to conflicts after they occur.

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Mishra, C. 2004.
Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. 
Environmental Conservation 4:338–343.

Livestock depredation by the snow leopard, Uncia uncia, and the wolf, Canis lupus, has resulted in a human-wildlife conflict that hinders the conservation of these globally-threatened species throughout their range. This paper analyses the alleged economic loss due to livestock depredation by these carnivores, and the retaliatory responses of an agro-pastoral community around Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The three villages studied (80 households) attributed a total of 189 livestock deaths (18% of the livestock holding) over a period of 18 months to wild predators, and this would amount to a loss per household equivalent to half the average annual per capita income. The financial compensation received by the villagers from the Government amounted to 3% of the perceived annual loss. Recent intensification of the conflict seems related to a 37.7% increase in livestock holding in the last decade. Villagers have been killing the wolf, though apparently not the snow leopard. A self-financed compensation scheme, and modification of existing livestock pens are suggested as area-specific short-term measures to reduce the conflict. The need to address the problem of increasing livestock holding in the long run is emphasized.

Download at: http://www.ncf-india.org/pubs/Mishra%201997.pdf

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Jo Kleiven, Tore Bjerke % Bjorn P. Kaltenborn, 2004.
Factors influencing the social acceptability of large carnivore behaviours.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 13(9): 1647-1658.

A survey on attitudes toward large carnivores was conducted in a representative sample of the Norwegian population (n = 3134). People were asked about the acceptability of carnivores living in remote wilderness, close to where people live, killing livestock, killing pets, or threatening humans. Large differences in acceptability appeared across the five situations. Wolves and bears were less acceptable than lynx and wolverines when observed close to where people live. Negative associations were found between acceptability and lack of personal control, economic loss, and respondents' age. Acceptability was higher among males than among females, and higher among urban than among rural residents. The results showed that general measures of attitudes alone toward large carnivores were of limited value in wildlife management. The situational and social specificity of these attitudes should be given more attention.

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Richard H. Lamprey & Robin S. Reid, 2004.
Expansion of human settlement in Kenya's Maasai Mara: what future for pastoralism and wildlife?
Journal of Biogeography, 31(6): 997-1032.

Aim Wildlife and pastoral peoples have lived side-by-side in the Mara ecosystem of south-western Kenya for at least 2000 years. Recent changes in human population and landuse are jeopardizing this co-existence. The aim of the study is to determine the viability of pastoralism and wildlife conservation in Maasai ranches around the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR). Location A study area of 2250 km2 was selected in the northern part of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, encompassing group ranches adjoining the MMNR. Emphasis is placed on Koyake Group Ranch, a rangeland area owned by Maasai pastoralists, and one of Kenya's major wildlife tourism areas. Methods Maasai settlement patterns, vegetation, livestock numbers and wildlife numbers were analysed over a 50-year period. Settlement distributions and vegetation changes were determined from aerial photography and aerial surveys of 1950, 1961, 1967, 1974, 1983 and 1999. Livestock and wildlife numbers were determined from re-analysis of systematic reconnaissance flights conducted by the Kenya Government from 1977 to 2000, and from ground counts in 2002. Corroborating data on livestock numbers were obtained from aerial photography of Maasai settlements in 2001. Trends in livestock were related to rainfall, and to vegetation production as indicated by the seasonal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. With these data sets, per capita livestock holdings were determined for the period 1980-2000, a period of fluctuating rainfall and primary production. Results For the first half of the twentieth century, the Mara was infested with tsetse-flies, and the Maasai were confined to the Lemek Valley area to the north of the MMNR. During the early 1960s, active tsetse-control measures by both government and the Maasai led to the destruction of woodlands across the Mara and the retreat of tsetse flies. The Maasai were then able to expand their settlement area south towards MMNR. Meanwhile, wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) from the increasing Serengeti population began to spill into the Mara rangelands each dry season, leading to direct competition between livestock and wildlife. Group ranches were established in the area in 1970 to formalize land tenure for the Maasai. By the late 1980s, with rapid population growth, new settlement areas had been established at Talek and other parts adjacent to the MMNR. Over the period 1983-99, the number of Maasai bomas in Koyake has increased at 6.4% per annum (pa), and the human population at 4.4% pa. Over the same period, cattle numbers on Koyake varied from 20,000 to 45,000 (average 25,000), in relation to total rainfall received over the previous 2 years. The rangelands of the Mara cannot support a greater cattle population under current pastoral practices. Conclusions With the rapid increase in human settlement in the Mara, and with imminent land privatization, it is probable that wildlife populations on Koyake will decline significantly in the next 3-5 years. Per capita livestock holdings on the ranch have now fallen to three livestock units/reference adult, well below minimum pastoral subsistence requirements. During the 1980s and 90s the Maasai diversified their livelihoods to generate revenues from tourism, small-scale agriculture and land-leases for mechanized cultivation. However, there is a massive imbalance in tourism incomes in favour of a small elite. In 1999 the membership of Koyake voted to subdivide the ranch into individual holdings. In 2003 the subdivision survey allocated plots of 60 ha average size to 1020 ranch members. This land privatization may result in increased cultivation and fencing, the exclusion of wildlife, and the decline of tourism as a revenue generator. This unique pastoral/wildlife system will shortly be lost unless land holdings can be managed to maintain the free movement of livestock and wildlife.

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Nina Fascione, Aimee Delach , Martin E. Smith, 2004.
People and Predators: From Conflict to Coexistence
Island Press, available in October 2004.

Carnivores provide innumerable ecological benefits and play a unique role in preserving and maintaining ecosystem services and function, but at the same time they can create serious problems for human populations. A key question for conservation biologists and wildlife managers is how to manage the world's carnivore populations to conserve this important natural resource while mitigating harmful impacts on humans.

In People and Predators, leading scientists and researchers offer case studies of human-carnivore conflicts in a variety of landscapes, including rural, urban, and political. The book covers a diverse range of taxa, geographic regions, and conflict scenarios, with each chapter dealing with a specific facet of human-carnivore interactions and offering practical, concrete approaches to resolving the conflict under consideration. Chapters provide background on particular problems and describe how challenges have been met or what research or tools are still needed to resolve the conflicts.

People and Predators will helps readers to better understand issues of carnivore conservation in the 21st century, and provides practical tools for resolving many of the problems that stand between us and a future in which carnivores fulfill their historic ecological roles.

The book can be ordered at Island Press

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Rolf D. Baldus (Ed.), 2004
Lion Conservation in Tanzania Leads to Serious Human – Lion Conflicts 
with a Case Study of a Man-Eating Lion Killing 35 People
GTZ Wildlife Programme in Tanzania, Wildlife Divisioin, Dar Es Salaam

Executive Summary
Tanzania has the largest lion populations on the continent, and they are not threatened with extinction.  The population is stable in nearly all protected areas.  It is of significant size and mostly stable outside these protected areas.  Exact data is lacking, but the lion-population has most probably been reduced during the last decades in areas with high population growth, expansion of agriculture and livestock husbandry and in some areas in North–western Tanzania where an influx of refugees has occurred.
Although the lion range has been reduced in Tanzania in the last 50 years due to human population growth and agricultural expansion, lions benefit from a widespread network of protected areas (30 % of the country) and from vast tracts of unpopulated and populated lands with relatively undisturbed habitats suitable for lions.
Lions are protected throughout the country, and it is the policy of the Government to conserve them both inside and outside of the protected areas, as they are part of biodiversity.  Some problem-animal control in extreme cases of human–lion conflict occurs, and approximately 250 lions are shot per year by tourist hunters, which is overall a sustainable yield.  Empirical evidence from the Selous Game Reserve shows that off-take levels are sustainable.  Lions play a major role in the hunting industry, which is economically significant and greatly contributes to paying the conservation bill. As a consequence of the Wildlife Policy of Tanzania (1998) Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) are being created where villages manage the wildlife on their land and are increasingly earning revenues, to which controlled lion hunting will contribute.  This will raise tolerance levels towards wildlife including dangerous game and it will improve the possibilities for wildlife as a land use option, thereby safeguarding areas which otherwise would be lost for wildlife.
As a consequence of this relatively good conservation record, in particular when compared to many other countries, lions are a major source of conflicts with the human population.  We estimate that around 200 people are killed in Tanzania every year by dangerous animals, of which around one third on an average could be by lions.  Lion inflicted injuries and loss of life have been and still are more acute in Southern Tanzania.  The paper presents details of one recent case where not less than 35 people were killed by one or several man-eating lions in an area of 350 km² just 150 km south–west of Dar es Salaam between the Rufiji River and the Selous Game Reserve within 20 months. It is one of the biggest individual cases of man-eating by one or two lions ever recorded and with the information presented here it is at the same time one of the best documented cases, at least in Tanzania. Further analysis might help to understand the underlying causes better and thereby assist in devising strategies to protect humans better without eradicating the lions.
The reasons which have led to such a tremendous loss of lions in Kenya or in West-Africa are not connected to international trade. To upgrade the lion to CITES Appendix I as proposed by Kenya would not address any of the issues that adversely affect lion populations, i.e. loss of habitat to agriculture, problem animal control, poaching and killing of lions by pastoralists. It would however, make the hunting of lions more difficult or even impossible. This hunting is sustainable and giving value to lions is one major element in the range of conservation tools which Tanzania has successfully applied to protect the future of the lion.

Download report as word file 

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Kleiven, J., T. Bjerke & B.P. Kaltenborn, 2004. 
Factors influencing the social acceptability of large carnivore behaviours.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 9: 1647-1658. 

Abstract
A survey on attitudes toward large carnivores was conducted in a representative sample of the Norwegian population (n = 3134). People were asked about the acceptability of carnivores living in remote wilderness, close to where people live, killing livestock, killing pets, or threatening humans. Large differences in acceptability appeared across the five situations. Wolves and bears were less acceptable than lynx and wolverines when observed close to where people live. Negative associations were found between acceptability and lack of personal control, economic loss, and respondents' age. Acceptability was higher among males than among females, and higher among urban than among rural residents. The results showed that general measures of attitudes alone toward large carnivores were of limited value in wildlife management. The situational and social specificity of these attitudes should be given more attention.

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Berger, K., 2004.
Carnivore-Livestock Conflicts: Making Economic Sense Of Subsidized Predator Control
2004 Society for Conservation Biology 18th Annual Meeting, 2004.

Abstract
Despite the ecological importance of carnivores in terrestrial ecosystems, predators have been persecuted worldwide, largely due to conflicts with humans over livestock. Control efforts have been phenomenally successful in terms of the number of carnivores removed; today most species of large carnivore are in global decline. Less well understood, however, are the effects of predator control programs on the viability of the industries they seek to protect. For instance, if predation losses are a primary factor influencing the economic viability of the U.S. sheep industry, and if predator control effectively reduces these losses, then a positive relationship should exist between control efforts and sheep numbers. I tested this prediction with a 60-year data set using multiple regression and hierarchical partitioning to explore potential associations between changes in sheep numbers and factors such as control expenditures, market prices and production costs. Although control efforts were positively correlated with fluctuations in sheep numbers, changes in production costs and market prices explained nearly all (87%) of the model variation between 1939 and 1999. These results suggest that alternative support mechanisms need to be developed if the goal is to maintain a viable livestock industry and not simply to kill carnivores.

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TREVES ADRIAN AND K. ULLAS KARANTH, 2003.
Human-Carnivore Conflict and Perspectives on Carnivore Management Worldwide.
Conservation Biology 17: 1491-1499.

Abstract
Carnivore conservation depends on the sociopolitical landscape as much as the biological landscape. Changing political attitudes and views of nature have shifted the goals of carnivore management from those based on fear and narrow economic interests to those based on a better understanding of ecosystem function and adaptive management. In parallel, aesthetic and scientific arguments against lethal control techniques are encouraging the development of nonlethal approaches to carnivore management. We anticipate greater success in modifying the manner and frequency with which the activities of humans and domestic animals intersect with those of carnivores. Success should permit carnivore populations to persist for decades despite human population growth and modification of habitat.

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Madhusudan, M. D., 2003.
Living amidst large wildlife: Livestock and crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of Bhadra Tiger Reserve, south India 
Environmental Management 31: 466-475.

Abstract
Conflict with humans over livestock and crops seriously undermines the conservation prospects of India's large and potentially dangerous mammals such as the tiger (Panthera tigris) and elephant (Elephas maximus). This study, carried out in Bhadra Tiger Reserve in south India, estimates the extent of material and monetary loss incurred by resident villagers between 1996 and 1999 in conflicts with large felines and elephants, describes the spatiotemporal patterns of animal damage, and evaluates the success of compensation schemes that have formed the mainstay of loss-alleviation measures. Annually each household lost an estimated 12% (0.9 head) of their total holding to large felines, and approximately 11% of their annual grain production (0.82 tonnes per family) to elephants. Compensations awarded offset only 5% of the livestock loss and 14% of crop losses and were accompanied by protracted delays in the processing of claims. Although the compensation scheme has largely failed to achieve its objective of alleviating loss, its implementation requires urgent improvement if reprisal against large wild mammals is to be minimized. Furthermore, innovative schemes of livestock and crop insurance need to be tested as alternatives to compensations.

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Conforti, V.A.& F.C.C. de Azevedo. 2003.
Local perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in the Iguacu National Park area, south Brazil.
Biological Conservation 111: 215-221.

Abstract
Jaguars (Panthera onca) have been killed by local residents within the boundaries and lands surrounding Iguaqu National Park (INP), Brazil. Both jaguars and pumas (Puma concolor) occur in the region, however, livestock predation by pumas has rarely been reported. Our objective was to assess the local perceptions about jaguars and pumas. We identified two major factors that distinguished the perceptions towards the two species: less people feared the puma than the jaguar; and most people believed that jaguars, but not pumas, were released into INP by local authorities. Interestingly, despite those major differences in these perceptions, feelings towards the two species tended to be the same. Perceptions towards jaguars were not influenced by the predation history of the properties, suggesting that the predation impact was not remarkable enough to influence local perceptions towards carnivores. This is apparently the first study on local perceptions towards large carnivores in Brazil.

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Marker, L. L., M.G.L. Mills & D.W. Macdonald 2003. 
Factors influencing perceptions of conflict and tolerance toward cheetahs on Namibian farmlands.
Conservation Biology 17:1290-1298.

Abstract
Namibia has the largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in the world, 90% of which are found outside protected areas on commercial farms. We conducted a baseline survey of Namibian farmers between 1991 and 1993, with a yearly follow-up thereafter until 1999, to quantify the perceptions of farmers toward cheetahs. Specifically, we sought to identify factors that cause cheetahs to be perceived as pests and management practices that mitigate this perception. The baseline survey revealed that farmers who regarded cheetahs as problems removed an average of 29 cheetahs annually, whereas those who did not consider them problematic removed a mean of 14 annually. These figures dropped significantly to 3.5 and 2.0 cheetahs per year after the introduction of educational materials. The perception that cheetahs are pests was significantly associated with game farms, and the presence of "play trees" on farms emerged as a significant corollary of both negative perceptions and removals of cheetahs. Between 1991 and 1999, the mean annual number of cheetah removals significantly decreased from 19 to 2.1. Late in the study, cheetah killing was more closely correlated with perceived problems than in the early years of the study. These findings suggest that although cheetahs are still perceived as a problem, farmers' tolerance toward cheetahs has increased. Management strategies and economic incentives that promote cheetah conservation, such as the formation of conservancies, development of ecotourism, and marketing of "predator-friendly" meat, are essential for conserving cheetahs outside protected areas.

Compensation and Insurance

MISHRA CHARUDUTT , PRISCILLA ALLEN, TOM McCARTHY, M. D. MADHUSUDAN, AGVAANTSERENGIIN BAYARJARGAL AND HERBERT H. T. PRINS, 2003.
The Role of Incentive Programs in Conserving the Snow Leopard.
Conservation Biology 17: 1512-1520.

Abstract
Pastoralists and their livestock share much of the habitat of the snow leopard (Uncia uncia) across south and central Asia. The levels of livestock predation by the snow leopard and other carnivores are high, and retaliatory killing by the herders is a direct threat to carnivore populations. Depletion of wild prey by poaching and competition from livestock also poses an indirect threat to the region's carnivores. Conservationists working in these underdeveloped areas that face serious economic damage from livestock losses have turned to incentive programs to motivate local communities to protect carnivores. We describe a pilot incentive program in India that aims to offset losses due to livestock predation and to enhance wild prey density by creating livestock-free areas on common land. We also describe how income generation from handicrafts in Mongolia is helping curtail poaching and retaliatory killing of snow leopards. However, initiatives to offset the costs of living with carnivores and to make conservation beneficial to affected people have thus far been small, isolated, and heavily subsidized. Making these initiatives more comprehensive, expanding their coverage, and internalizing their costs are future challenges for the conservation of large carnivores such as the snow leopard.

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NAUGHTON-TREVES LISA, REBECCA GROSSBERG§ AND ADRIAN TREVES, 2003.
Paying for Tolerance: Rural Citizens' Attitudes toward Wolf Depredation and Compensation.
Conservation Biology 17:1500-1511.

Abstract
As wolf (Canis lupus) populations recover in Wisconsin (U.S.A.), their depredations on livestock, pets, and hunting dogs have increased. We used a mail-back survey to assess the tolerance of 535 rural citizens of wolves and their preferences regarding the management of "problem" wolves. Specifically, we tested whether people who had lost domestic animals to wolves or other predators were less tolerant of wolves than neighboring residents who had not and whether compensation payments improved tolerance of wolves. We assessed tolerance via proxy measures related to an individual's preferred wolf population size for Wisconsin and the likelihood she or he would shoot a wolf. We also measured individuals' approval of lethal control and other wolf-management tactics under five conflict scenarios. Multivariate analysis revealed that the strongest predictor of tolerance was social group. Bear (Ursus americanus) hunters were concerned about losing valuable hounds to wolves and were more likely to approve of lethal control and reducing the wolf population than were livestock producers, who were more concerned than general residents. To a lesser degree, education level, experience of loss, and gender were also significant. Livestock producers and bear hunters who had been compensated for their losses to wolves were not more tolerant than their counterparts who alleged a loss but received no compensation. Yet all respondents approved of compensation payments as a management strategy. Our results indicate that deep-rooted social identity and occupation are more powerful predictors of tolerance of wolves than individual encounters with these large carnivores.

Predation on Livestock & Attacks on Humans

Repeated wild boar depredation on adult sheep (in French)
Cas répétés de prédation de sangliers sur des ovins adultes

Please find the information on the website of the ONCFS (Office Nationale de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage) 
and download at: http://www.oncfs.gouv.fr/events/point_faune/suivi-sanitaire/sangliers_ovins.pdf

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Huygens, O.C., F.T. van Manen , D.A. Martorello, H. Hayashi and J. Ishida. 2004. Relationships between Asiatic black bear kills and depredation costs in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Ursus 15(2):197–202.

Over 1,000 Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are killed each year in Japan to control depredation activity. Our objective was to determine if killing bears reduces depredation costs. We focused our study on Nagano Prefecture, where 2,562 nuisance bears were reported killed and where reported depredation cost exceeded ¥1,430 million between 1979 and 1999. We used mixed models with repeated measures to determine if annual depredation costs were associated with the number of bears killed. Our dataset included 15 years (1985–99) of kill and cost data for 122 municipal jurisdictions within 10 regions. We performed analyses at the regional level based on combined harvest and nuisance kill data, and at the municipal level based only on nuisance kill data. We classified the number of kills into 3 classes (low, medium, high). Analyses were repeated using prior-year kills to examine whether a possible time-lag existed. Annual depredation costs were positively associated with the kill data at the regional level (F = 5.51; 2, 72.3 df; P = 0.006) during the same year. However, we observed no association based on prior-year kill data (F = 0.96; 2, 65.1; P = 0.390), suggesting that depredation costs and bear kills are a function of nuisance bear numbers rather than reflecting a causal relationship between the 2 measures. Nuisance bear numbers may in turn be affected either by the availability of natural foods or by general population trends. At the municipal level, depredation costs were not associated with the number of nuisance bears killed during the same year (F = 1.36; 2, 466 df; P = 0.258) or the prior year (F = 0.42; 2, 459 df; P = 0.656). Our results suggest that systematically killing Asiatic bears may not be an effective tool for mitigating nuisance costs. In municipalities where nuisance costs remain high, we recommend that alternative methods be tested for their efficacy in mitigating costs. Such methods may include public education, changing or removing financial incentives to kill bears, changing crop rotations to crops that are not attractive to bears in risk areas, promoting natural food production, using electric fences, and applying aversive conditioning techniques.

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Kvam, T., K. M. Rosendal, E.M. Rosvold, A. Aune, S.M. Rosendal, K. Brøndbo, P.F. Moa. (2004).
Sheep mortality in an area close to a major city 2002-2003. 
Nord-Trøndelag University College HINT Utredning 55: 1-57. (In Norwegian)

Summer mortality of free-grazing lambs in two forested grazing areas west of the Norwegian capital Oslo had increased dramatically from 3-6% to 11-17% between 1997 and 2001. To identify causes of mortality lambs were equipped with radio-transmitters in 2002 (n=317) and 2003 (n=299). All of the other lambs in the flocks were equipped with "dummy" transmitters. Mortality among the radio-collared lambs was 18% in 2002 and 12% in 2003. Lynx were responsible for 65% and 24% of mortality in these radio-collared lambs in 2002 and 2003, respectively. Other causes of mortality included disease, drowning, red fox predation and problems with insect larvae.

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Jethva B.D. & Y.V. Jhala, 2004.
Foraging ecology, economics and conservation of Indian wolves in the Bhal region of Gujarat, Western India.
Biological Conservation, 116: 351-357.

Abstract
We determined the food habits of the endangered Indian wolf Canis lupus pallipes in the Bhal region of Gujarat, western India by analyzing 1246 wolf scats from five packs by estimating prey availability and by monitoring radio-tagged wolves from three packs for 1994 hour. The frequency of occurrence of blackbuck Antelope cervicapra remains in scats was 55.5%, followed by cattle (25.7%), nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (6.3%); and as others (<5%). The frequency of food items in scats of different wolf packs reflected their relative availability. For cattle the distinction between scavenging and predation was only possible through continuous monitoring. The average feeding interval obtained from monitoring was 3.6[plus or minus] 0.7 (S.E.) days and the average consumption/wolf/day was 1.8[plus or minus] 0.3 (S.E.) Kg. Adult male blackbuck formed most (70%) of the biomass consumed by wolves whereas cattle carcasses and cattle actually killed by wolves contributed 14 and 8%, respectively. Predation on cattle therefore was low and translated in an estimated loss of Rs. 821 (US$ 17) per village per annum. We propose that landscapes such as the Bhal with high wolf densities, high natural prey availability and consequently low human-wolf conflict levels should be prioritized as prime sites for wolf conservation efforts.

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Capitani, C., I.  Bertelli, P. Varuzza , M.  Scandura & M. Apollonio, 2004.
A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems.
Mammalian Biology 69: 1-10.

Abstract
To verify food habit flexibility of wolf populations under different ecological conditions, scats collected year round were analysed in three study areas and diet composition of resident packs was compared. The three study areas, representing Alpine (SV), Apennine (PM) and Mediterranean (CV) ecosystems, are rich in wild ungulates, which differ in number of species and relative abundance; livestock is also present. Wild ungulates were the main source of food, accounting for 89.4%–95.1% of the diet. Livestock, instead, scarsely reached 8% of annual mean percent volume in any one area, and only in the Alps did they play a major role in autumn. Other food items constituted less than 5% of annual mean percent volume. Variations in the proportions of use of wild ungulate categories were observed among the study areas, although some patterns of intraspecific selection emerged in each area. Finally, differences both in the relationships between utilisation and availability of preys, and in trophic niche breadth were discussed in relation to environmental features and colonization patterns.

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Athreya, V.R.; Thakur, S.S.; Chaudhuri, S.; and Belsare A.V. 2004. 
A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune District, Maharashtra.  
Submitted to the Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Nagpur. Maharashtra Forest Department.

The western Indian state of Maharashtra, with a population of around 500 leopards (Panthera pardus fusca), has in recent times seen an escalation in man – leopard conflicts. This very detailed study measures the degree of conflict, looks at spatial and temporal patterns in conflict intensity –including two regions that differ in topological and socio-economic factors- and provides recommendations for dealing with problem leopards.

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Patterson, B.D., S. M. Kasiki, E. Selempo and R.W. Kays, 2004. 
Livestock predation by lions (Panthera leo) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. 
Biological Conservation 119: 507-516.

Abstract
Lion conflicts with humans stemming from their depredations on livestock are largely responsible for their catastrophic decline, from 200,000 to 22,600 (90%) in only 20 years. Understanding patterns associated with such predation can be used to mitigate its effects and promote continued coexistence of lions and human. We analyzed attacks on livestock over a four-year period on two arid-land ranches neighboring Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. A total of 312 attacks claiming 433 head of stock were examined. Lions were responsible for 85.9% of the attacks; spotted hyenas and cheetahs were the other predators responsible. Lions and hyenas attacked mainly cattle and did so at night, whereas cheetahs almost exclusively took smaller sheep and goats. There was no temporal autocorrelation of daily losses, suggesting that the attacks are independent events. Both number of attacks and number of stock killed showed significant seasonal differences, and their monthly totals correlated positively with precipitation. Intensified predation in the wet season differs from patterns of lion predation elsewhere but reinforces the pattern that large carnivores take more livestock when native prey are most difficult to find and kill. On average, wildlife attacks claimed 2.4% of range stock annually, and livestock represented ca 5.8% of the diet of ranch lions. This predation represented 2.6% of the herd's estimated economic value, and cost the ranches $8,749 per annum. Each lion cost ranchers approximately $290 per year in depredations.

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Sidorovich Vadim E. Sidorovich, Larisa L. Tikhomirova & Bogumila Jedrzejewska, 2003.
Wolf Canis lupus numbers, diet and damage to livestock in relation to hunting and ungulate abundance in northeastern Belarus during 1990-2000.
Wildlife Biology 9: 103-111.

Abstract
Wolf Canis lupus relationships with wild ungulates, domestic animals and humans were studied in an area of ca 800 km2 at the head of the Lovat River in northeastern Belarus during 1990-2000. The region was dominated by natural habitats (78%) consisting mainly of forests and bogs, but also lakes and rivers. The abundance of wild ungulates, such as moose Alces alces, wild boar Sus scrofa, and roe deer Capreolus capreolus, as censused by snow tracking and assessed by game wardens, declined 5 to 6-fold between 1990 and 1996, most probably due to uncontrolled exploitation and poaching. During 1997-2000, the numbers of ungulates began to recover. Wolves responded to the shortage of wild ungulates by a strong shift in feeding habits. When wild ungulates were numerous, wolf diet as studied by scat analysis was composed of wild ungulates (80-88% of consumed biomass), with small additions of medium- and smallsized wild animals (7-13%), mainly beaver Castor fiber and hare Lepus sp., and domestic animals (4-6%), mainly cattle. In the years when the recorded numbers of wild ungulates were at their lowest, wolves preyed on domestic animals (38% of biomass consumed), wild ungulates (32%), and medium- and smallsized wild prey (29%). Wolf damage to domestic animals (28 head of cattle and 247 dogs killed) and wolf-human interaction (100 observations of wolves in and near villages, including one attack by a rabid wolf on 11 people) were recorded in 14 villages. The rate of wolf predation on domestic animals and their appearances in villages increased exponentially with the declining biomass of wild ungulates and ceased again when wild ungulates began to recover; a one-year time lag in wolf response to changes in ungulate abundance was observed. The numbers of wolves as estimated by snow tracking and assessed by game wardens played a weaker role in shaping wolf-livestock and wolf-human interaction. The wolf population was strongly affected by hunting during the study. Wolves responded numerically with a 1 to 2-year time lag to the varying intensity of harvest by humans. Our study showed the role of the human factor in shaping wolf numbers and wolf-livestock interaction in eastern Europe. The three major components of this relationship were: 1) the manifold decline in wild ungulate abundance, which was most probably caused by uncontrolled exploitation by humans in the years of political transformation and economic regress, made wolves shift to predation on domestic animals; inevitably, wolves were frequently seen in the rural areas; 2) people interpreted the growing rates of wolf damage and appearances near the settlements as an effect of greatly increasing numbers of wolves, and demanded that authorities and hunters fight the 'wolf plague'; 3) hunting impact on wolves increased and led to a marked reduction in wolf numbers and a decline in wolf-human conflicts. This scenario was most probably repeated in many areas of eastern Europe during 1990-2000, which was a decade of political and economical transformation. From a management perspective, we suggested that predation levels and wolf-human conflicts could be reduced not only by increased wolf harvest but also by enhancing the density and diversity of wild ungulates.

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Polisar J., I. Maxit, D. Scognamillo, L. Farrell, M.E. Sunquist & J.F. Eisenberg, 2003.
Jaguars, pumas, their prey base, and cattle ranching: ecological interpretations of a management problem.
Biological Conservation 109: 297-310.

Moberly, R.L., C.L.P. White, C.C. Webbon, P.J. Baker and S. Harris. 2003. 
Factors associated with fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation of lambs in Britain. 
Wildlife Research 30:219–227.

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are believed to have an economic impact on farming through predation on lambs, poultry and game. Investigation of the causes behind variation in the impact of predation between farms is required to improve management of these problems. A questionnaire survey of sheep farmers was combined with field data on relative fox population abundance to investigate some of the factors associated with both the occurrence and scale of perceived fox predation in Britain. Reported lamb losses to foxes were generally low but there was a large range in perceived levels of predation, from 0.0008 to 0.26 lambs per ewe, with 59% of respondents reporting that they had lost at least one lamb to a fox at their most recent lambing. Flock size was an important factor determining perceived fox predation. Fox predation was more likely to have occurred on larger farms, but, when it did, fewer lambs were perceived lost per ewe. Various other non-management characteristics, including regional location, had an influence on fox predation. Fox abundance was positively associated with perceived predation. Indoor lambing was an important preventive measure against fox predation. However, the effect of fox control on livestock predation was difficult to determine because of potential reactive behaviour by farmers to lamb losses. The analyses indicate that multivariate rather than univariate techniques should be used in the assessment of predator impacts and in making management recommendations. The identification of farm characteristics associated with fox predation, such as location and indoor lambing, enables the potential identification of problem farms where preventive management should be targeted.

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Models Applied to Conflict Resolution

TREVES ADRIAN, LISA NAUGHTON-TREVES, ELIZABETH K. HARPER, DAVID J. MLADENOFF, ROBERT A. ROSE, THEODORE A. SICKLEY, AND ADRIAN P. WYDEVEN, 2004.
Predicting Human-Carnivore Conflict: a Spatial Model Derived from 25 Years of Data on Wolf Predation on Livestock.
Conservation Biology 18, 114-125.

Abstract
Many carnivore populations escaped extinction during the twentieth century as a result of legal protections, habitat restoration, and changes in public attitudes. However, encounters between carnivores, livestock, and humans are increasing in some areas, raising concerns about the costs of carnivore conservation. We present a method to predict sites of human-carnivore conflicts regionally, using as an example the mixed forest-agriculture landscapes of Wisconsin and Minnesota (U.S.A.). We used a matched-pair analysis of 17 landscape variables in a geographic information system to discriminate affected areas from unaffected areas at two spatial scales (townships and farms). Wolves (Canis lupus) selectively preyed on livestock in townships with high proportions of pasture and high densities of deer (Odocoileus virginianus) combined with low proportions of crop lands, coniferous forest, herbaceous wetlands, and open water. These variables plus road density and farm size also appeared to predict risk for individual farms when we considered Minnesota alone. In Wisconsin only, farm size, crop lands, and road density were associated with the risk of wolf attack on livestock. At the level of townships, we generated two state-wide maps to predict the extent and location of future predation on livestock. Our approach can be applied wherever spatial data are available on sites of conflict between wildlife and humans.

Application of Prevention Measures

and Guarding Animal

Orysia Dawydiak & David Sims, 2004. 2nd Edition
Livestock Protection Dogs, Selection, Care and Training

ISBN: 1-57779-062-6, Softcover, illustrated, $24.95

Includes:
• What a livestock protection dog can do
• Selecting a puppy
• Caring for your dog
• Behavioral problems and solutions
• Preparations for a family companion
• Guarding unusual stock
• Plus much more!!!

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SHIVIK JOHN A., ADRIAN TREVES, AND PEGGY CALLAHAN, 2003.
Nonlethal Techniques for Managing Predation: Primary and Secondary Repellents. Conservation Biology 17, Page 1531-1537.

Abstract
Conservation biology requires the development of practical tools and techniques to minimize conflicts arising from human modification of ecosystems. We applied behavioral theory of primary and secondary repellents to predator management by using aversive stimulus devices (electronic training collars) and disruptive stimulus devices (behavior-contingent audio and visual repellents) in a multipredator (Canis lupus, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, Ursus spp.) study in the United States. We examined fladry and a newly developed disruptive stimulus device contingent upon behavior on six wolf territories in Wisconsin, (U.S.A.) and determined that the disruptive stimulus device gave the greatest degree of protection from predation. We also compared the efficacy of a primary repellent (disruptive stimulus device) versus a secondary repellent (electronic training collars) to keep captive wolves from consuming a food source. Disruptive stimulus devices effectively prevented captive wolves from consuming the food resource, but did not produce an aversion to that food resource. With training collars, logistical and behavioral variability limited our ability to condition wolves. Our studies highlight the complexity of application of nonlethal techniques in real-world situations.

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MORDECAI O. OGADA, ROSIE WOODROFFE, NICHOLAS O. OGUGE, AND LAURENCE G. FRANK, 2003.
Limiting Depredation by African Carnivores: the Role of Livestock Husbandry.
Conservation Biology 17: 1521-1530.

Abstract
Most large carnivore species are in global decline. Conflict with local people, particularly over depredation on livestock, is a major cause of this decline, affecting both nominally protected populations and those outside protected areas. For this reason, techniques that can resolve conflicts between large carnivores and livestock farmers may make important contributions to conservation. We monitored rates of livestock depredation by lions ( Panthera leo), leopards (Panthera pardus), cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and retributive killing of these species by farmers in livestock-producing areas of Laikipia District, Kenya. Farmers killed more lions, leopards, and spotted hyenas where these predators killed more livestock. Livestock husbandry had a clear effect on rates of depredation and hence on the numbers of predators killed. Cattle, sheep, and goats experienced the lowest predation rates when attentively herded by day and enclosed in traditional corrals (bomas) by night. Construction of the boma, the presence of watchdogs, and high levels of human activity around the boma were all associated with lower losses to predators. Although most of this work was carried out on commercial ranches, local Maasai and Samburu pastoralists have practiced nearly identical forms of husbandry for generations. Our study shows that traditional, low-tech husbandry approaches can make an important contribution to the conservation of large carnivores.

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MUSIANI MARCO , CHARLES MAMO, LUIGI BOITANI, CAROLYN CALLAGHAN, C. CORMACK GATES, LIVIA MATTEI, ELISABETTA VISALBERGHI, STEWART BRECK AND GIULIA VOLPI, 2003.
Wolf Depredation Trends and the Use of Fladry Barriers to Protect Livestock in Western North America.
Conservation Biology 17: 1538-1547.

Abstract
In Alberta, Canada (1982-2001), and in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, United States (1987-2001), wolves (Canis lupus) killed various domestic animals, among which the major prey were sheep in the United States (68%,n =494) and cattle in Canada (95%;n =1633). Under recovery programs, the wolf population increased in the United States, and depredation events increased proportionately. In both countries, the number of domestic animals killed each year was correlated with the number of wolves killed by government authorities for depredation management. We tested the ability of antiwolf barriers made of flags hanging from ropes to impede wolf access to food and livestock. In 18 experiments, barriers prevented captive wolves(n =9)from accessing food for up to 28 hours and allowed daily separation of wolves to administer contraceptive pills to a female wolf. Barriers prevented access by wild wolves to 100-m2 baited sites during two 60-day tests. We also set barriers around three cattle pastures. In Alberta during two 60-day trials on 25-ha pastures, wolves approached barriers on 23 occasions but did not cross them, and no cattle were killed. Wolves killed cattle on neighboring ranches during the trials and before and after the trials on the tested ranches. In Idaho four radiocollared wolves crossed barriers and killed cattle in a 400-ha ranch after 61 days of barrier exposure. Our results suggest that antiwolf barriers are effective in deterring captive and wild wolves for >1 and >=60 days, respectively, and that wild wolves switch to alternative livestock when excluded from one herd of livestock. Our depredation data indicate that protecting livestock from wolves reduces the necessity for killing wolves. Barriers could play a role among the limited set of preventive measures available and offer a cost-effective mitigation tool for the problem of livestock depredation on a local scale.

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BRECK, S. W., R. WILLIAMSON, C. NIEMEYER, AND J. A. SHIVIK. 2002.
Non-lethal radio activated guard for deterring wolf depredation in Idaho: summary and call for research.
Proceedings Vertebrate Pest Conference 20:223-226.

Abstract
With the reestablishement of wolves in the western United States, managing adverse interactions between wolves and livestock is re-emerging as an issue for resource managers. Lethal control of wolves is often difficult to implement due to the constraints of the Endangered Species Act, predator population goals, and public disfavour for lethal control. In response to the need to manage wolf predation in a non-lethal manner, we developed and tested a behavior contingent system for disrupting predation events. The Avian Systems Model 9000 Frightening System, also called a Radio Activated Guard (RAG), is activated by signals from nearby wolf radio collars. The strobe light, tape player with 30 different recorded sound effects, and behaviorally contingent activation are designed to minimize habituation to the system. Based on studies in Idaho, we believe RAG boxes are effective for protecting livestock in small pastures situations. Limitations of the scare device include electronic complexity, area coverage, and price. We continue to develop and test the limitations of their effective use in ongoing experimental research.

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Rigg, R. 2001. 
Livestock Guarding Dogs: Their Current Use World Wide. 
IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group Occasional Paper No 1

Aims
This report aims to outline the basic concepts of using dogs to protect livestock from predators, to describe some of the breeds involved, to give brief advice on acquiring and raising dogs to be successful livestock guardians and to provide some indication of how to solve common problems. Its main purpose, however, is to compile a detailed review of current practices in the use of livestock guarding dogs throughout the world and to discuss these in relation to livestock depredation by predators. The annexes list known users and experts on livestock guarding dogs as well as sources of further information available in the scientific literature and on the internet.

Target audience
Wildlife managers, potential sponsors of livestock guarding dog and human-wildlife conflict resolution projects, researchers as well as livestock breeders.

Sources
The majority of material presented here was obtained from literature searches of scientific journals along with presentations from the 2nd International Wildlife Management Congress in Gödöllõ, Hungary from the 28th June to 2nd July 1999 and the Beyond 2000: Realities of Global Wolf Restoration symposium in Duluth, Minnesota from the 23rd to 26th February 2000 as well as the author’s own experience of fieldwork in Slovakia in 1996-2001 and a brief study visit to Romania and Bulgaria from 9th to 24th August 2001. Consultations with various colleagues have been held as opportunity has allowed. As a great deal of work with livestock guarding dogs is not of a scientific nature, particularly outside the USA, additional material available on the internet between October 2000 and October 2001 has been included. For convenience, website addresses for articles posted on the internet have been included in the Annex II reference section and useful website addresses have also been provided in the early sections of the report (references to websites given within the body of text quote the year in which the site was visited).

Limitations
Although the intention has been to provide case studies from as many countries using livestock guarding dogs as possible, there was a shortage of information among the sources reviewed for some regions, particularly Asia and South and Central America, as well as some European states. ¼. Remeta (pers. comm. 2001) described groups of Caucasian Shepherd dogs being left for days at a time in sole charge of large herds (thousands) of livestock in Dagestan, Black and Green (1985 citing Orbigny 1826) mentioned working dogs in Uruguay and Darwin (1845 in Coppinger et al 1985) also observed dogs socialised to and guarding livestock in Banda Oriental; Arons (1980) mentioned and Coppinger et al (1985) discussed livestock guarding dogs in Mexico, the early Southwest US and South America. The latter authors also postulated reasons for the demise of the Castillian mastiff. Landry (1999b) has briefly reviewed observations from Bosnia, the Sharplanina region of Macedonia, Kosovo and Albania as well as the Caucasus (Georgia); Coppinger and Coppinger (1995) and Lorenz and Coppinger (1986) included captioned photographs of Shar Planinetz in Yugoslavia; whilst husbandry practices associated with livestock guarding dog use in these European countries do not seem to diverge greatly, as far as the evidence suggests, from those described for other European countries included in this report, practices in Latin America and Asia may be quite different. 

The article can be downloaded on the Canide Specialist Website her 

or directly here

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